Electronic Advertising

Introduction In electronic advertisement, business enterprises take hold of the opportunities presented to them through the Internet and the World Wide Web to promote their respective businesses. Electronic advertisement involves the use of these and suchlike platforms to deliver marketing or promotional messages to potential customers.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Electronic Advertising specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Electronic advertisement is performed through search engines, social networking sites, blogs, E-mail and online networks devoted to its promotion. One major benefit presented by electronic advertisement that surpasses traditional advertising methods is the increased ability to customize adverts, thus making investments in this kind of business more efficient. Another benefit of electronic advertisement over traditional advertising methods is that it has the ability to reach a wider audience com prising people of different ages, ethnic and racial backgrounds. the next advantage of electronic advertisement is that consumers wield more control on an item and, therefore, can choose whether to check the advert or not. The Internet is the main platform through which electronic marketing is carried out. Its expansion to accommodate more capabilities is an incentive that attracts business enterprises to electronic marketing. Literature review Organizations need information systems so that they can manage efficiently and provide security to the information at the procession. In addition, information systems are an effective means to improve integration and work processes in them. An information system basically creates a log of another system that is integrated into the organization. The system which log is created by an organization’s information system is known as a target system. Owing to the dynamicity and volatility of the electronic marketing environment in which an or ganization or business enterprise finds itself in, there is a need to mange its marketing information more efficiently and log its marketing systems to ensure optimal performance. Thus, there is the need for information systems based on the information technology devoted to the electronic marketing. Such information systems are known as Information Technology-based Marketing Information Systems (MkISs).Advertising Looking for essay on advertising? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More MkISs can be defined as a collection of procedures and methods formulated for regular planning analysis and presentation of information that is essential in marketing decision-making (Talvinen, 1994, 8). Managing marketing information through MkISs in an organization facilitates effective online or electronic marketing as it ensures that marketing decision-makers are presented with timely and accurate marketing information, thus enabling them to improv e the design, plan and implementation of their electronic marketing strategies (Talvinen, 1994, 8). MkISs collect, share marketing information and use it to promote the corporate and brand image of an organization. MkISs in organizations improve communication of marketing information between personnel in the sales (or promotion, or product management) and accounting (or corporate planning, or advertising) departments. An examination of MkISs reveals that a number of models underlie their design and development (Talvinen, 1994, 10). These models present MkISs along two aspects, namely, typical subsystems and general dimensions. There are six classes of these models, thus the classification is done on the basis of the type of primary use of the MkISs. The first class of these models is data gathering where MkISs that fall in this category are used primarily for gathering marketing data and all the necessary information. The second class of MkISs’ models is data analysis which c omprises of MkISs used first for analyzing the collected statistics that is critical in marketing decision-making. The third class of MkISs’ models is marketing planning which captures all the MkISs that facilitate effective design of marketing plans. The fourth class of MkISs’ models is marketing decision making, which captures MkISs that enable informed and positive decision-making with respect to the marketing strategies. The fifth class of MkISs’ models is the implementation of marketing activities, which capture MkISs that are used in the development and promotion of successful electronic marketing activities. The sixth class of MkISs’ models is control, which is divided further into two subclasses, namely, external and internal ones. The external control subclass of MkISs captures the MkISs that are used in controlling an organization’s external marketing environment and activities. The internal control subclass of MkISs deals with the MkISs that are used in controlling an organization’s internal marketing environment and activities.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Electronic Advertising specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More MkISs can be divided into two groups, and this is dependent on two things. The first one is the position of the users of the MkISs in the organization, and the second is the use of a certain type of the MkISs. The first group of MkISs is used by managers, and the second one is that for use in sales and marketing activities. Typically, in an organization, there is a variation in class of MkISs used by managers and marketing analysts and so on. Similarly, there is a variation in class between the MkISs implemented in operational sales activities and marketing. The users of MkISs, marketing information management and decision-making systems include marketing managers, senior executives, marketing analysts, marketing experts and S BUs (Strategic Business Units) (Talvinen, 1994, 10). So as to come up with sound electronic marketing decisions, marketing managers heavily rely on marketing analysts and experts because the latter have skills to transform raw marketing information collected by data gathering MkISs into knowledge needed by the marketing managers. In today’s world, MkISs are not only designed and developed to be used strictly in the context of management but in other areas as well. MkISs are integrated into operational process-oriented systems for sales and marketing that are used in operational daily marketing activities. These daily marketing operational activities include telemarketing, database marketing (or direct mailing) and operational sales management. The users of such kind of MkISs are personnel in an organization’s middle management, operative sales and marketing. A very important factor to consider when integrating MkISs is the relationship between them and other informatio n systems (Talvinen, 1994, 10). These other information systems include those used in other organizational processes, such as finance, human resource, production, etc. The movement of data or data flow between the MkISs and the other information systems should be understood and defined well. Another very important aspect to consider in the integration of MkISs is data gathering. The MkISs have to collect information from the marketing environment of an organization and, mainly, from consumers and competitors. MkISs generally gather marketing statistics of a qualitative nature whereas other information systems working with the MkISs collect quantitative data (Talvinen, 1994, 10). An example of data gathered by MkISs is consumer buying behaviour. MkISs can be tuned to generate management reports, such as sales forecasts.Advertising Looking for essay on advertising? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To complement the statistics and information gathered by MkISs, there is an outstanding need for organizations to collect data on the organization’s external marketing environment. When such data is gathered, it can be again stored in the MkISs. Such statistics is accumulated through queries invoked against commercial databases and data banks. Another aspect to consider in the integration of MkISs is how to transform or convert the data gathered into usable information and knowledge (Talvinen, 1994, 10). MkISs are a vital tool in the implementation of the sales and marketing strategies as they provide an analysis approach and analysis tools for converting the qualitative data they have gathered into information and knowledge. An area in which the knowledge generated from an MkISs is used is in sales and marketing activities, e.g. telemarketing and database advertising. Another area which benefits form the knowledge generated from MkISs is management which has to control marke ts, marketing strategies and activities, analyze target markets and make marketing decisions. Operational MkISs are vital sources of internal information for management MkISs’, which are the main systems that generate information from the data collected (Talvinen, 1994, 10). Another area in which the knowledge generated from an MkISs is useful is in research and development where new marketing strategies are developed, and/or older ones are improved. Information generated from MkISs is also useful in market forecasting as well as planning. Another very important aspect to consider when integrating MkISs into an organization is analysis and decision-making (Talvinen, 1994, 10). MkISs are tools for analysing the data they gather. Moreover, these systems are, therefore, essential in successful and effective decision making. Marketing analysts and experts should familiarize themselves with the analysis approach and analysis tools presented by the MkISs. Senior executives are the main decision-makers and should be, therefore, conversant with how the MkISs present their findings. In the organization, marketing decision making involves close collaboration between the current analysts (experts) and the senior executives with the former ones transforming the raw data gathered by the MkISs into the information and knowledge that can be readily used by the latter Analysis One of the underlying strengths of all the MkISs is information technology (IT) boom. The IT boom is a worldwide phenomenon encouraging the automation, storage and digitization of the knoweledge. This inherently encourages the development and use of MkISs. Another underlying advantage of MkISs is their need for digital storage of information. Traditionally, marketing information would be kept and stored in paper form, which would make it more risky and arduous to manage high volumes of information. With MkISs, information is stored in electronic form in computers reducing the chances of it being lost and, in addition, it makes its management easy. Another basic benefit of MkISs is their need for an integrated information management for marketing data. The marketing environment in which organizations find themselves in is very dynamic and volatile. Collection and management of marketing data in such an environment can be difficult, thus MkISs make it possible for the statistics to be collected and kept until the time when an organization is ready to transfer it or use it in one or another way. The next main strength of MkISs is that they need to have a ready access to marketing data. The electronic (digital) storage of marketing data by MkISs allows its users to have a ready access to the marketing data from any geographical location as long as the MkISs are online, It means that they are running on the World Wide Web or through the Internet. Another underlying strength of MkISs is its compatibility or support for advanced information technology infrastructure. MkISs can be implemented or integrated using advanced information technology infrastructure. This factor allows to have a huge storage of data and fast processing. This ensures that knowledge is generated from the MkISs in real-time and quickly integrated into marketing decision making. On the contrary, one of the main weaknesses of MkISs is the need for advanced knowledge to operate them. Typically, MkISs’ infrastructure consists of computer hardware such as mainframes, which are less user-friendly to operate and thus may require additional training which can be costly. Another disadvantage of MkISs is low security. Keeping information online as its risk as the information is vulnerable to online attacks from hackers who can maliciously use it for their own gain. An organization is to ensure that the information in the MkISs is secure, otherwise, lack of information security can be detrimental to the organization. Low security is a weakness as well as a threat of MkISs. Findings From the analysis above, low security as been identified is both the weakness and the threat to MkISs. One way to enhance the security of MkISs can be implemented through cryptography where information is hidden from unauthorized individuals due to the use of encryption and decryption algorithms (Coulouris et al, 2005, 275). In the face of the online attacks, cryptography ensures knowledge security by making sure that information being exchanged between the MkISs and the other systems is encrypted and decrypted by authorized individuals (Coulouris et al, 2005, 276). Another way to maintain the security of MkISs is through firewalls. Firewalls monitor as well as regulate the communication and interaction between a computer and an online resource and, thus, ensure that no malicious attacks can occur. In addition to these security enhancing measures, it is also important that MkISs undergo continuous quality improvement (CQI). Continuous quality improvement ensures that MkISs do not become obs olete in the face of new challenges, especially those relating to security. In continuous quality improvement, the potential failures of MkISs are determined beforehand, and action plans (proactive incident response plans) are formulated to eliminate or deal with them. One technique of doing CQI is FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis) (Black, 2005, 25). FMEA reveals the strengths, weakness and potential failures of a system. The main function of FMEA is that it predicts the failures related to the design of a system and, therefore, ensures that the system will be based on the set standards and work according to all the necessary requirements. Conclusion As technology advances, the capabilities of the Internet and the World Wide Web are extended in tandem. This results in increased online traffic which marketers want to tap into. electronic advertising. This is, therefore, a positive strategic investment for organizations and business enterprises with long term growth and expansio n objectives and endeavors. To perform effective electronic advertising, it is imperative that such organizations are able to manage their marketing information effectively owing to the dynamicity and volatility of the environment they are to operate in. Thus, it is important that they acquire and implement MkISs, which are information systems dedicated to improving decision-making in the area of electronic marketing. MkISs, however, have one major shortcoming which is that they cannot guarantee the security of information stored in them. This shortcoming necessitates the need for an organization to invest heavily and regularly in information security. Reference List Black, R. (2002). Managing the testing process: practical tools and techniques  for managing hardware and software testing. Wiley Publishing, Inc.: Canada Coulouris, G. Dollimore, J. And Kindberg, T. ( 2005). Distributed systems concepts and design. (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited: England. Talvinen, J.M. (1994). Information systems in marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 29(1), 8 -10 This essay on Electronic Advertising was written and submitted by user Kimberly Kent to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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The Potential Unreliability Of Eyewitness Criminology Essay The potential unreliability of eyewitness testimony poses one of the most serious problems in the administration of criminal justice. Eyewitness testimony is very important for legal decisions. Eyewitnesses are central to most court cases (Kebbell Milne, 1999) and eyewitnesses accounts are the most common and significant testimonies that can potentially serve as the primary forms of evidence against a defendant. Moreover research shows that jurors exaggeratedly believe the testimony of eyewitnesses and this, can lead to possible miscarriages of justice (Cutler et al. 1990). The aim of this essay is to investigate, based on the literature, the reasons that may influence the memory process of eyewitnesses and also what can be done in order to ensure that eyewitnesses testimony worth the value. Eyewitness testimony is a legal term and it refers to an account given by a bystander in the courtroom, who describes what happened during a specific incident under investigation. This is the principal way in which the guilt of the accused is established through verbal witness evidence in court. It is considered to be a reliable accepted form that provides evidence and jurors tend to pay close attention to it. Recently forensics and psychologists declare that memories and individual perceptions are unreliable, can being easily manipulated and biased . As a result, inaccurate eyewitnesses identifications can have serious consequences leading to wrong convictions of innocent people (Wells et al., 1998). When scientific psychology was in its first steps, articles about mistaken eyewitness identifications started to appear in the field (Munsterberg, 1908). However, eyewitness evidence has made people to think if eyewitnesses testimonies are reliable or not. It would be said though that all people have the knowledge that they do not remember everything, and therefore they know that memory can be weak. On the other hand it is difficult to deny the importance of eyewitnesses testimony. Research has shown that people probably feel better about convicting an alleged criminal when an eyewitness claims I saw him do it than when there is no such claim. The hypothesis that inaccurate eyewitness identifications can lead to the conviction of innocent people is also accepted by Canadian legal professionals (Brooks, 1983). DNA testing in the United States has shown that mistaken eyewitness identifications are the reason for more false convictions than all other causes combined (Connors et al. 1996 ). Moreover, this statement about eyewitness misidentifications that is one of the most common causes of wrongful convictions ( Rattner, Sagarin, 1986). Borchard reported that eyewitness error occurred in 45% of 65 cases of wrongful convictions. Huff (1986) found eyewitness errors in nearly 60% of 500 wrongful convictions and Ruttner (1986) concluded that eyewitness error occurred in 52% of 205 wrongful convictions. All these wrongful convictions studies were conducted before the invention of DNA testing. In 1996 a study which analysed of the application of DNA technology to forensic issues in the United States, has revealed some significant facts (Connors, et al., 1996). More specifically 28 men who were found guilty for various criminal acts were exonerated through the analysis of DNA typing. Eyewitness identification was the single most common factor accounting for these erroneous convictions. Furthermore, Wells, et al., (1998) added some more cases to the list of DNA-related wi th false identifications. These cases revealed that one to up to five eyewitnesses made false identifications of innocent suspects. Nevertheless, the eyewitness evidence was presented by well-meaning and confident citizens it was highly persuasive but, at the same time it was at least partially responsible for the majority of wrongful convictions. More recently, The Innocence Project reported some significant facts. The Innocence Project is a national litigation and public policy organisation dedicated to exonerating wrongfully convicted individuals through DNA testing and reforming the criminal justice system to prevent future injustice. The findings of this project show that about 66% of 138 cases in which DNA could exonerate the accused, wrongfully eyewitness identification was involved (Wells, 2004). As eyewitness concerns the memory process it is undeniable that some memory trace exists and this could have important consequences for the course of justice (Wells, 1993). Few people would doubt that human memory is fallible. According to Haber (2000), people tend to believe that memories are like video recorders that faithfully record the things that people do and replay them back perfectly later. The fact is that sensory and perceptual experiences of an incident are not recorded in memory in a similar way to a videotape recorder (Yarmey, 1980). Human memory is constructed and reconstructed from stored bits and pieces of acquired information of what actually happened and what a person intuits, discovers from others, or infers must have happened'(Graham, 2008). Following the reconstructive view, memory can be divided into three stages: (1) acquisition or encoding of information; (2) retention or storage of information over time; and (3) retrieval of stored information through recal l and recognition. A lot of problems may occur in each of these three stages. Loftus (1979, 1996) has focused a lot in these three stages of memory in order to understand the problems that may occur and lead to false convictions. Thus in the first stage which is encoding, the information first goes into the memories. More specifically, if not enough attention is paid to what is going on the encoding stage, then events may not be encoded properly. For example the length of time an eyewitness is able to see the perpetrator, will affect the accuracy of his/her memory. That is, the longer an eyewitness can see the perpetrator, the more will be able to encode and retrieve later on the identification task. Thus, exposure time is a very important variable that can affects the accuracy of eyewitness identification ( Laugherty et al., 1971). Furthermore other problems that may influence the encoding stage are the event salience and the prior expectations of the eyewitness. Usually eyewitnesses pay more attention to some details than others and also recall expectation n ot necessarily the truth. As a result they give wrong identifications (Loftus, 1974). During the second stage which is storage, people keep the information in their memories to recall later. In this stage the factors that may influence the eyewitnesses testimony are the length of time or the exposure to new information. For example witnesses might read a new report about the incident, which can affect their original memory, or if the information is stored for a long time the natural processes of forgetting could further degrade the memory. For this reason, some witnesses are more susceptible than other to false memories. However, people appear more susceptible to post-event information if it occurs later in the interval before formal retrieval (Loftus, 2005). Moreover research suggests that witnesses from each end of the age spectrum may be less reliable on average than those in between. For example, elderly witnesses and young children were found to be poorer at identifying strange rs accurately than other age groups (Ceci Bruck, 1993). Moreover, according to Loftus (1974) another reason that may lead to false memories is the stress that might experiment different eyewitnesses. High levels of stress have been suggested to have a negative effect on a witnesss ability to encode and retrieve information (Kassin et al., 2001). Finally the retrieval stage which is when the information is released in peoples memories, perhaps as a response to questioning, it can create further changes. For example the way questions are asked can distort the original memory or the stressful circumstance may prevent accurate recall. Psychologists distinguish two types of retrieval, recall and recognition. Recognition is where, for example, a eyewitness may take part in a line-up and asked if they have seen it before. The recall equivalent of these tasks would be to ask the eyewitness to describe the suspects appearance or what they were wearing. Recall is usually considered to be mor e difficult because it involves more stages of processing, not only verification but also retrieval (Kebbell Wagstaff, 1999). Other factors that can lead to wrongful evidence are the confidence that eyewitnesses may have the different type of questioning and problems with line-ups. First of all confidence should always be taken into account when assessing the risk of misidentification. Research has shown that lawyers in general accept that confident witnesses are accurate (Leippe, Manion Romanczyk, 1992; Wells et al., 2000). It is suggested that people tend to be more confident when they are forced to choose answers which can cause difficulties in the criminal proceeding (Bornstein Zickafoose, 1999). Moreover badly worded questions, complex sentences and difficult vocabulary are all potentially problematic for witnesses (Kebell Johnson, 2000). Finally according to Busey and Loftus (2007) there are some problems with line-ups. These problems might be inadequate matched fillers, which means that the foils do not match the descriptions of the offender provided by eyewitnesses, bias and unconscious transfere nce which happens when the witness has seen the suspect before but not realise this. Eyewitness testimony is a topic that has a lot of limitations and need for further research is essential. The majority of studies designed to assess the validity of eyewitness have been conducted in laboratory and have used videotapes or live simulations of crime events. Only a minority of these researches have been field studies involving genuine victims and eyewitnesses of real crimes (Brigham et al., 1982; Krafka Penrod, 1985; Pigott, Brigham, Bothwell, 1990; Penrod Cutler, 1997). Of course, eyewitness identifications are made under all sorts of the adequate conditions, but these studies were based on conditions that made witnesses feel more comfortable. For example in several studies there was no psychological pressure for identifying the perpetrator, because in a laboratory study there is not any real risk of the defendant to be sentenced to forensic settings. Furthermore another factor that makes these studies inaccurate consists of the fact that witnesses were asked to iden tify photos rather than real people and there was no arousal for a lot of studies at the time of the encoding. Finally another element to take into consideration is the confidence of the witnesses. In some cases it has been shown to have a significant effect while other studies have shown that it does not. A factor that may increase the credibility of the eyewitness testimony is the expert testimony about eyewitness identification. Such expert testimony has already been allowed in numerous countries around the world (Fishman Loftus, 1978). Expert testimony is designed to provide scientific information. According to Loftus (1978), an expert psychologist can describe to the jurors the studies that have been conducted and the results from the experiments on peoples ability. Furthermore expert testimony about eyewitness behaviour takes part when a professional psychologist is admitted by the judge as an expert authority on eyewitness testimony who is presented in the court and informs the jurors about scientific studies related in memory and the variables that are known to influence memory and memory report (Vidmar Schuller, 1989). Research has shown that expert testimony is the only legal safeguard about the factors that affect the reliability of eyewitnesses accounts to perceive and re call complex events (Cutler Penrod, 1995). Thus the jurors can have enough information on which to evaluate the identification evidence correctly. However expert testimony is not always useful (Cutler Penrod, 1995), expensive time -consuming and there are limited number of experts (Wells, 1993). To summarise, eyewitness testimony is very important in the determination of various legal decisions and also eyewitness accounts are essential because they serve strong evidence against a defendant. However researches have shown that inaccurate eyewitness identifications can have serious consequences leading to wrong convictions of innocent people. The reasons which provoke these erroneous convictions may be problems in the three stages of memory or some types of physical features such as the age and the race of the witness, the behaviour of other witnesses, the presence or absence of expert testimony and the confidence of eyewitnesses. Moreover researches have revealed numerous limitations. The fact that research is mostly based on laboratories studies can be problematic when it comes to apply to real-life situations with precision. In addition a not well organised structure of the line-ups and the inappropriate questioning techniques can contribute to witnesses making mistakes. Ne vertheless, eyewitness testimony continues and will continue to have value because it is considered to be one of the most important factors of evidence in the court which provides vivid and virtual evidence of an incident. On the other hand witnesses are not automatically unreliable. There is much that can be done to promote good evidence both by the police and the courts. It is the forensic psychologists role to investigate further issues which lead to accurate as well as inaccurate accounts and to assist the criminal justice system in interpreting research findings for the benefit of all parties. New studies may help increase the value of the eyewitness testimony by enhancing judges and jurors knowledge of this type of testimony and this can reduce wrongful convictions. Judges and jurors will be more aware of the dangers of erroneous eyewitness testimony and more willing to permit legal safeguards, including expert testimony which informs them about the limitations that they have to be aware of and not to discount a testimony entirely in these limitations. Moreover increasing judges and jurors knowledge of eyewitness testimony is also essential because expert testimony is not a panacea for erroneous identifications. Finally, a dialogue between judges and researchers who specialise in eyewitness studies would be useful in increasing the value of the testimony. Reducing wrongful convictions is vital because the continual discovery of false convictions undermines the reliability of the legal system.

The Role of Women in The Epic of Gilgamesh Essay -- Foster, Literary An

The story starts off with Gilgamesh, the King of Uruk, who is one third man and two thirds god. This story is about a man's quest for immortality in addition to the importance of boundaries between the realms of animal, man and gods. Women symbolize the importance of locative boundaries in the text. These boundaries are set by the harlot Shamhat, Ishtar, Siduri, the tavern keeper, Ninsun and Utanapishtim's wife. By giving women this role of wisdom and boundary enforcement, The Epic of Gilgamesh reflects how Mesopotamian society actually valued women. The harlot, Shamhat, serves to establish the boundary between animals and humans. Enkidu, a creature on the border between animal and man is selected by the gods to balance out Gilgamesh's power. Gilgamesh summons Shamhat to civilize Enkidu after a hunter complains to him about not being able to hunt properly. The harlot, "made herself naked and welcomed his eagerness; as he lay on her murmuring love she taught him the woman's art" (64). Not only did the harlot have sex with Enkidu she also gave him clothing, good food and wine causing Enkidu to become a man" (67). This shows not only the locative emphasis of a man's role in society but also a woman's role in securing that place. By civilizing Enkidu, the harlot manages to keep Gilgamesh in his place by establishing an equal for him. Similarly, both Ishtar and Siduri maintain the boundaries between humans and the divine realm by trying to keep Gilgamesh in the realm of man. Gilgamesh insults Ishtar with rejection and she then sends down the Bull of Heaven as revenge (85-88). After Enkidu and Gilgamesh kill the Bull of Heaven Enkidu insulted Ishtar further when he, "tore out the Bull's right thigh and tossed it in her face" (88). ... ... Gilgamesh sleeps show that he is powerless over sleep. Utanapishtim's wife represents Gilgamesh's inability to be immortal and the necessity of boundaries between the realms. Therefore, both Utanapishtim's wife and Ninsun symbolize wisdom and the boundary between man and gods. Thus, the role of women in this story serves to keep animals, men and gods in their respective boundaries. The harlot represents civilization by taking Enkidu from wild man to civilian and putting him solely in the human realm. Ishtar keeps Gilgamesh in check by taking Enkidu's life as a result of their disrespect while Siduri shows a woman's wisdom by giving Gilgamesh his lot in life. Meanwhile, Ninsun gives Enkidu to Gilgamesh as an equalizer as well as her prophetic knowledge. Lastly, Utanapishtim's wife shows that Gilgamesh can never be immortal and therefore must stay in his own world.