The Ethical Dilemma of Playing Both a Therapeutic and a...

The Ethical Dilemma of Playing both a Therapeutic and a Forensic Role: The difference Amal Long-Labaar Argosy University Professional amp; Ethical Issues in Forensic Psych FP6500 Dr. Andria Hernandez April 20, 2013 Abstract There are specific differences between forensic psychologists and counseling psychologists/therapists. Not just the obvious differences such as the forensic psychologist being retained by the courts, prosecution, or defense, and the counseling psychologist performing therapeutic treatments and sessions to help the client/patient heal, but other ethical differences that enable the forensic psychologist to disclose his/her finds to the entity that has retained him/her to assess, interview and test the†¦show more content†¦When following such guidelines, there is little chance of committing an ethical infraction. (Bush, Connell, amp; Denney, 2011, p. 44-47) According to Greenberg amp; Shuman (1997), they note that there are ten differences between the forensic psychologist and the treating psychologist providing therapy. 1) For the Forensic psychologist, the attorney is the client. For the therapist it is the mental health therapist. The highest priority is the therapist client privilege. 2) When it comes to privilege, the attorney-client and the attorney work product is privilege. 3) The cognitive and evaluative attitude for the forensic psychologist is neutral, detached and impartial. The same for the therapist is supportive, empathic and accepting. 4) There are differing aspects of competency of each professional, for the forensic psychologist it is the forensic evaluation, techniques that are appropriate to the legal claim. As for the therapist, the therapeutic techniques for treatment of the disorder or complaint. 5) The nature of the hypothesis tested by each psychological expert, for the forensic psychologist is psycholegal cri teria for purpose of legal adjudication. The therapist/psychologist criteria is different, their criteriaShow MoreRelatedOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesmore fragmented. Organization theory is central to managing, organizing and reflecting on both formal and informal structures, and in this respect you will find this book timely, interesting and valuable. Peter Holdt Christensen, Associate Professor, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark McAuley et al.’s book is thought-provoking, witty and highly relevant for understanding contemporary organizational dilemmas. The book engages in an imaginative way with a wealth of organizational concepts and theoriesRead More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 Pagesinternationally. Chris was the Iowa recipient of the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science and Mathematics Teaching in 1986. He was a regional winner of the IBM Com- Contents 1 The Role of Statistics and the Data Analysis Process 1.1 Three Reasons to Study Statistics 1 1.2 The Nature and Role of Variability 4 1.3 Statistics and the Data Analysis Process 7 1.4 Types of Data and Some Simple Graphical Displays 12 Activity 1.1 Head Sizes: Understanding Variability 22 Activity 1.2 Estimating

Class Struggle and Karl Marx - 743 Words

Marx laid out some economic conditions and stages of class struggle in a capitalist society that would lead to revolution. The first condition is that as the bourgeoisie rise, so does a â€Å"proletariat† class that labors in their new industries (p.479). This class of wage-laborers who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced to selling their labor power in order to live, are the unavoidable consequence of the bourgeois modes of production (p.473). As bourgeois industries continue to grow, perfect their machinery, and increase their own capital, the proletariat class swells. Other classes’ inability to compete with the bourgeois capitalists results in the â€Å"†¦proletariat [being] recruited from all classes of the population† (p.480). A greater division of labor (DL) occurs in conjunction with the increased use of machinery (with which less skill is required of workers). Increased DL leads to cheaper products, cheaper means of subsistence, and finally lower wages. 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Fluke, or, I Know Why the Winged Whale Sings Chapter 5~6 Free Essays

CHAPTER FIVE Hey, Buddy, Why the Big Brain? The next morning the four of them stood in a row on the front of the old Pioneer Hotel, looking across the Lahaina Harbor at the whitecaps in the channel. Wind was whipping the palm trees. Down by the breakwater two little girls were trying to surf waves whose faces were bumpy with wind chop and whose curls blew back over the crests like the hair of a sprinter. We will write a custom essay sample on Fluke, or, I Know Why the Winged Whale Sings Chapter 5~6 or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"It could calm down,† Amy said. She was standing next to Kona, thinking, This guy’s pecs are so cut you could stick business cards under them and they’d stay. And my, is he tan. Where Amy came from, no one was tan, and she hadn’t been in Hawaii long enough to realize that a good tan was just a function of showing up. â€Å"Supposed to stay like this for the next three days,† Nate said. As disappointed as he appeared to be, he was extraordinarily relieved that they wouldn’t be going out this morning. He had a rogue hangover, and his eyes were bloodred behind his sunglasses. Self-loathing had set in, and he thought, My life’s work is shit, and if we went out there today and I didn’t spend the morning retching over the side, I’d be tempted to drown myself. He would rather have been thinking about whales, which is what he usually thought about. Then he noticed Amy sneaking glances at Kona’s bare chest and felt even worse. â€Å"Ya, mon. Kona can spark up a spliff and calm down that bumpy brine for all me new science dreadies. We can take the boat no matter what the wind be,† Kona said. He was thinking, I have no idea what the hell I’m talking about, but I really want to get out there with the whales. â€Å"Breakfast at Longee’s, and then we’ll see how it looks,† Clay said. He was thinking, We’ll have breakfast at Longee’s, and then we’ll see how it looks. None of them moved. They just stood there, looking out at the blowout channel. Occasionally a whale would blow, and the mist would run over the water like a frightened ghost. â€Å"I’m buying,† Clay said. And they all headed up Front Street to Longee’s restaurant, a two-story gray-and-white building, done in a New England architecture with shiplap siding and huge open windows that looked across Front Street, over the stone seawall, and out onto the Au’ au Channel. By way of a shirt, Kona slipped on a tattered Nautica windbreaker he’d had knotted around his waist. â€Å"You do a lot of sailing?† Amy asked, nodding to the Nautica logo. She intended the remark as dig, a return for Kona’s saying, â€Å"And who be this snowy biscuit?† when they’d first met. At the time Amy had just introduced herself, but in retrospect she realized that she should probably have taken some offense to being called both snowy and a biscuit – those things were objectifying, right? â€Å"Shark bait kit, me Snowy Biscuit,† Kona answered, meaning that the windbreaker had come from a tourist. The Paia surfing community on the North Shore, from which Kona had recently come, had an economy based entirely on petty theft, mostly smash-and-grabs from rental cars. As the host led them through the crowded dining room to a table by the windows, Clay leaned over Amy’s shoulder and whispered, â€Å"A biscuit is a good thing.† â€Å"I knew that,† Amy whispered back. â€Å"Like a tomato, right?† â€Å"Heads up,† Clay said, just as Amy plowed into a khaki package of balding ambition known as Jon Thomas Fuller, CEO of Hawaii Whale Inc., a nonprofit corporation with assets in the tens of millions that disguised itself as a research organization. Fuller had pushed his chair back to intercept Amy. â€Å"Jon Thomas!† Clay smiled and reached around the flustered Amy to shake Fuller’s hand. Fuller ignored Clay and took Amy by the waist, steadying her. â€Å"Hey, hey, there,† Fuller said. â€Å"If you wanted to meet me, all you had to do was introduce yourself.† Amy grabbed his wrists and guided his hands to the table in front of him, then stepped back. â€Å"Hi, I’m Amy Earhart.† â€Å"I know who you are,† said Fuller, standing now. He was only a little taller than Arny, very tan and very lean, with a hawk nose and a receding hairline like a knife. â€Å"What I don’t know is why you haven’t come to see me about a job.† Meanwhile, Nate, who had been thinking about whale song, had taken his seat, opened a menu, ordered coffee, and completely missed the fact that he was alone at the table. He looked up to see Jon Thomas Fuller holding his assistant by the waist. He dropped his menu and headed back to the site of the intercept. â€Å"Well, partly† – Amy smiled at the three young women sitting at Fuller’s table – â€Å"partly because I have some self-respect† – she curtsied – â€Å"and partly because you’re a louse and a jamoke.† Fuller’s dazzling grin dropped a level of magnitude. The women at his table, all dressed in khaki safari wear to approximate the Discovery Channel ideal of what a scientist should look like, made great shows of looking elsewhere, wiping their mouths, sipping water – not noticing their boss getting verbally bitch-slapped by a vicious research pixie. â€Å"Nate,† Fuller said, noticing that Nate had joined the group, â€Å"I heard about the break-in at your place. Nothing important missing, I hope.† â€Å"We’re fine. Lost some recordings,† Nate said. â€Å"Ah, well, good. A lot of lowlifes on this island now.† Fuller looked at Kona. The surfer grinned. â€Å"Shoots, brah, you make me blush.† Fuller grinned. â€Å"How you doing, Kona?† â€Å"All cool runnings, brah. Bwana Fuller got his evil on?† There were neck-snapping double takes all around. Fuller nodded, then looked back at Quinn. â€Å"Anything we can do, Nate? There are a lot of our song recordings for sale in the shops, if those will help out. You guys get professional discount. We’re all in this together.† â€Å"Thanks,† Nate said just as Fuller sat down, then turned his back on all of them and resumed eating his breakfast, dismissing them. The women at the table looked embarrassed. â€Å"Breakfast?† Clay said. He herded his team to their table. They ordered and drank coffee in silence, each looking out across the street to the ocean, avoiding eye contact until Fuller and his group had left. Nate turned to Amy. â€Å"A jamoke? What are you, living in a Cagney movie?† â€Å"Who is that guy?† Amy asked. She snapped the corner off a piece of toast with more violence than was really necessary. â€Å"What’s a jamoke?† Kona asked. â€Å"It’s a flavor of ice cream, right?† Clay said. Nate looked at Kona. â€Å"How do you know Fuller?† Nate held up his ringer and shot a cautionary glare, the now understood signal for no Rasta/pidgin/bullshit. â€Å"I worked the Jet Ski concession for him at Kaanapali.† Nate looked to Clay, as if to say, You knew this? â€Å"Who is that guy?† Amy asked. â€Å"He’s the head of Hawaii Whale,† Clay said. â€Å"Commerce masquerading as science. They use their permit to get three sixty-five-foot tourist boats right up next to the whales.† â€Å"That guy is a scientist?† â€Å"He has a Ph.D. in biology, but I wouldn’t call him a scientist. Those women he was with are his naturalists. I guess today was even too windy for them to go out. He’s got shops all over the island – sells whale crap, nonprofit. Hawaii Whale was the only research group to oppose the Jet Ski ban during whale season.† â€Å"Because Fuller had money in the Jet Ski business,† Nate added. â€Å"I made six bucks an hour,† Kona said. â€Å"Nate’s work was instrumental in getting the Jet Ski parasail ban done,† Clay said. â€Å"Fuller doesn’t like us.† â€Å"The sanctuary may take his research permit next,† said Nate. â€Å"What science they do is bad science.† â€Å"And he blames you for that?† Amy asked. â€Å"I – we have done the most behavioral stuff as it relates to sound in these waters. The sanctuary gave us some money to find out if the high-frequency noise from Jet Skis and parasail boats affected the behavior of the whales. We concluded that it did. Fuller didn’t like it. It cost him.† â€Å"He’s going to build a dolphin swim park, up La Perouse Bay way,† Kona said. â€Å"What?† Nate said. â€Å"What?† said Clay. â€Å"A swim-with-the-dolphins park?† said Amy. â€Å"Ya, mon. Let you come from Ohio and get in the water with them bottlenose fellahs for two hundred dollar.† â€Å"You guys didn’t know about this?† Amy was looking at Clay. He always seemed to know everything that was going on in the whale world. â€Å"First I’ve heard of it, but they’re not going to let him do it without some studies.† He looked to Nate. â€Å"Are they?† â€Å"It’ll never happen if he loses his research permit,† Nate said. â€Å"There’ll be a review.† â€Å"And you’ll be on the review board?† asked Amy. â€Å"Nate’s name would solidify it,† Clay said. â€Å"They’ll ask him.† â€Å"Not you?† Kona asked. â€Å"I’m just the photographer.† Clay looked out at the whitecaps in the channel. â€Å"Doesn’t look like we’ll be getting out today. Finish your breakfast, and then we’ll go pay your rent.† Nate looked at Clay quizzically. â€Å"I can’t give him money,† Clay said. â€Å"He’ll just smoke it. I’m going to go pay his rent.† â€Å"Truth.† Kona nodded. â€Å"You don’t still work for Fuller, do you, Kona?† Nate asked. â€Å"Nate!† Amy admonished. â€Å"Well, he was there when I found the office ransacked.† â€Å"Leave him alone,† Amy said. â€Å"He’s too cute to be bad.† â€Å"Truth,† said Kona. â€Å"Sistah Biscuit speak nothin’ but the truth. I be massive cute.† Clay set a stack of bills on the table. â€Å"By the way, Nate, you have a lecture at the sanctuary on Tuesday. Four days. You and Amy might want to use the downtime to put something together.† Nate felt as if he’d been smacked. â€Å"Four days? There’s nothing there. It was all on those hard drives.† â€Å"Like I said, you might want to use the downtime.† CHAPTER SIX Whale Wahine As a biologist, Nate had a tendency to draw analogies between human behavior and animal behavior – probably a little more often than was strictly healthy. For instance, as he considered his attraction to Amy, he wondered why it had to be so complex. Why there had to be so many subtleties to the human mating ritual. Why can’t we be more like common squid? he thought. The male squid simply swims up to the female squid, hands her a neat package of sperm, she tucks it under her mantle at her leisure, and they go on their separate ways, their duty to the species done. Simple, elegant, no nuance†¦ Nate held the paper cup out to Amy. â€Å"I poured some coffee for you.† â€Å"I’m all coffeed out, thanks,† said Amy. Nate set the cup down on the desk next to his own. He sat in front of the computer. Amy was perched on a high stool to his left going through the hardbound field journals covering the last four years. â€Å"Are you going to be able to put together a lecture out of this?† she asked. Nate rubbed his temples. Despite a handful of aspirin and six cups of coffee, his head was still throbbing. â€Å"A lecture? About what?† â€Å"Well, what were you planning to do a talk on before the office was ransacked? Maybe we can reconstruct it from the field notes and memory.† â€Å"I don’t have that good a memory.† â€Å"Yes you do, you just need some mnemonics, which we have here in the field notes.† Her expression was as open and hopeful as a child’s. She waited for something from him, just a word to set her searching for what he needed. The problem was, what he needed right now was not going to be found in biology field notes. He needed answers of another kind. It bothered him that Fuller had known about the break-in at the compound. It was too soon for him to have found out. It also bothered him that anyone could hold him in the sort of disdain that Fuller obviously did. Nate had been born and raised in British Columbia, and Canadians hate, above all things, to offend. It was part of the national consciousness. â€Å"Be polite† was an unwritten, unspoken rule, but ingrained into the psyche of an entire country. (Of course, as with any rule, there were exceptions: parts of Quebec, where people maintained the â€Å"dismissive to the point of confrontation, with subsequent surrender† mind-set of the French; and hockey, in which any Canadian may, with impunity , slam, pummel, elbow, smack, punch, body-check, and beat the shit out of, with sticks, any other human being, punctuated by profanities, name-calling, questioning parentage, and accusations of bestiality, usually – coincidentally – in French.) Nate was neither French-Canadian nor much of a hockey player, so the idea of having invoked enmity enough in someone to have that person ruin his research†¦ He was mortified by it. â€Å"Amy,† he said, having spaced out and returned to the room in a matter of seconds, he hoped, â€Å"is there something that I’m missing about our work? Is there something in the data that I’m not seeing?† Amy assumed the pose of Rodin’s The Thinker on her stool, her chin teed up on her hand, her brow furrowed into moguls of earnest contemplation. â€Å"Well, Dr. Quinn, I would be able to answer that if you had shared the data with me, but since I only know what I’ve collected or what I’ve analyzed personally, I’d have to say, scientifically speaking, beats me.† â€Å"Thanks,† Nate said. He smiled in spite of himself. â€Å"You said there was something there that you were close to finding. In the song, I mean. What is it?† â€Å"Well, if I knew that, it would be found, wouldn’t it?† â€Å"You must suspect. You have to have a theory. Tell me, and let’s apply the data to the theory. I’m willing to do the work, reconstruct the data, but you’ve got to trust me.† â€Å"No theory ever benefited by the application of data, Amy. Data kills theories. A theory has no better time than when it’s lying there naked, pure, unsullied by facts. Let’s just keep it that way for a while.† â€Å"So you don’t really have a theory?† â€Å"Clueless.† â€Å"You lying bag of fish heads.† â€Å"I can fire you, you know. Even if Clay was the one that hired you, I’m not totally superfluous to this operation yet. I’m kind of in charge. I can fire you. Then how will you live?† â€Å"I’m not getting paid.† â€Å"See, right there. Perfectly good concept ruined by the application of fact.† â€Å"So fire me.† No longer The Thinker, Amy had taken on the aspect of a dark and evil elf. â€Å"I think they’re communicating,† Nate said. â€Å"Of course they’re communicating, you maroon. You think they’re singing because they like the sound of their own voices?† â€Å"There’s more to it than that.† â€Å"Well, tell me!† â€Å"Who calls someone a maroon? What the hell is maroon?† â€Å"It’s a mook with a Ph.D. Don’t change the subject.† â€Å"It doesn’t matter. Without the acoustic data I can’t even show you what I was thinking. Besides, I’m not sure that my cognitive powers aren’t breaking down.† â€Å"Meaning what?† Meaning that I’m starting to see things, he thought. Meaning that despite the fact that you’re yelling at me, I really want to grab you and kiss you, he thought. Oh, I am so fucked, he thought. â€Å"Meaning I’m still a little hungover. I’m sorry. Let’s see what we can put together from the notes.† Amy slipped off the stool and gathered the field journals in her arms. â€Å"Where are you going?† Nate said. Had he somehow offended her? â€Å"We have four days to put together a lecture. I’m going to go to my cabin and do it.† â€Å"How? On what?† â€Å"I’m thinking, ‘Humpbacks: Our Wet and Wondrous Pals of the Deep –  » â€Å"There’s going to be a lot of researchers there. Biologists – † Nate interrupted. † – and Why We Should Poke Them with Sticks.  » â€Å"Better,† Nate said. â€Å"I got it covered,† she said, and she walked out. For some reason he felt hopeful. Excited. Just for a second. Then, after he’d watched her walk out, a wave of melancholy swept over him and for the thirtieth time that day he regretted that he hadn’t just become a pharmacist, or a charter captain, or something that made you feel more alive, like a pirate. The old broad lived on a volcano and believed that the whales talked to her. She called about noon, and Nate knew it was her before he even answered. He knew, because she always called when it was too windy to go out. â€Å"Nathan, why aren’t you out in the channel?† the Old Broad said. â€Å"Hello, Elizabeth, how are you today?† â€Å"Don’t change the subject. They told me that they want to talk to you. Today. Why aren’t you out there?† â€Å"You know why I’m not out there, Elizabeth. It’s too windy. You can see the whitecaps as well as I can.† From the slope of Haleakala, the Old Broad watched the activity in the channel with a two-hundred-power celestial telescope and a pair of â€Å"big eyes† binoculars that looked like stereo bazookas on precision mounts that were anchored into a ton of concrete. â€Å"Well, they’re upset that you’re not out there. That’s why I called.† â€Å"And I appreciate your calling, Elizabeth, but I’m in the middle of something.† Nate hoped he didn’t sound too rude. The Old Broad meant well. And they, in a way, were all at the mercy of her generosity, for although she had  «donated » the Papa Lani compound, she hadn’t exactly signed it over to them. They were in a sort of permanent lease situation. Elizabeth Robinson was, however, very generous and very kindhearted indeed, even if she was a total loon. â€Å"Nathan, I am not a total loon,† she said. Oh yes you are, he thought. â€Å"I know you’re not,† he said. â€Å"But I really have to get some work done today.† â€Å"What are you working on?† Elizabeth asked. Nate could hear her tapping a pencil on her desk. She took notes during their conversations. He didn’t know what she did with the notes, but it bothered him. â€Å"I have a lecture at the sanctuary in four days.† Why, why had he told her? Why? Now she’d rattle down the mountain in her ancient Mercedes that looked like a Nazi staff car, sit in the audience, and ask all the questions that she knew in advance he couldn’t answer. â€Å"That shouldn’t be hard. You’ve done that before, what, twenty times?† â€Å"Yes, but someone broke in to the compound yesterday, Elizabeth. All my notes, the tapes, the analysis – it’s all destroyed.† There was silence on the line for a moment. Nate could hear the Old Broad breathing. Finally, â€Å"I’m really sorry, Nathan. Is everyone all right?† â€Å"Yes, it happened while we were out working.† â€Å"Is there anything I can do? I mean, I can’t send much, but if – â€Å" â€Å"No, we’re all right. It’s just a lot of work that I have to start over.† The Old Broad might have been loaded at one time, and she certainly would be again if she sold the land where Papa Lani stood, but Nate didn’t think that she had a lot of money to spare after the last bear market. Even if she did, this wasn’t a problem that could be solved with cash. â€Å"Well, then, you get back to work, but try to get out tomorrow. There’s a big male out there who told me he wants you to bring him a hot pastrami on rye.† Nate grinned and almost snorted into the phone. â€Å"Elizabeth, you know they don’t eat while they’re in these waters.† â€Å"I’m just relaying the message, Nathan. Don’t you snicker at me. He’s a big male, broad, like he just came down from Alaska – frankly, I don’t know why he’d be hungry, he’s as big as a house. But anyway, Swiss and hot English mustard, he was very clear about that. He has very unusual markings on his flukes. I couldn’t see them from here, but he says you’ll know him.† Nate felt his face go numb with something approximating shock. â€Å"Elizabeth –  » â€Å"Call if you need anything, Nathan. My love to Clay. Aloha.† Nathan Quinn let the phone slip from his fingers, then zombie-stumbled out of the office and back to his own cabin, where he decided he was going to nap and keep napping until he woke up to a world that wasn’t so irritatingly weird. Right on the edge of a dream where he was gleefully steering a sixty-foot cabin cruiser up Second Street in downtown Seattle, plowing aside slow-moving vehicles while Amy, clad in a silver bikini and looking uncharacteristically tan, stood in the bow and waved to people who had come to the windows of their second-story offices to marvel at the freedom and power of the Mighty Quinn – right on the edge of a perfect dream, Clay burst into the room. Talking. â€Å"Kona’s moving into cabin six.† â€Å"Get some lines in the water, Amy,† Nate said from the drears of morpheum opus. â€Å"We’re coming up on Pike’s Place Market, and there’s fish to be had.† Clay waited, not quite smiling, not quite not, while Nate sat up and rubbed sleep from his eyes. â€Å"Driving a boat on the street?† Clay said, nodding. All skippers had that dream. â€Å"Seattle,† said Nate. â€Å"The Zodiac lives in cabin six.† â€Å"We haven’t used the Zodiac in ten years, it won’t hold air.† Clay went to the closet that acted as a divider between the living/sleeping area and the kitchen. He pulled down a stack of sheets, then towels. â€Å"You wouldn’t believe how they had this kid living, Nate. It was a tin industrial building, out by the airport. Twenty, thirty of them, in little stalls with cots and not enough room to swing a dead cat. The wiring was extension cords draped over the tops of the stalls. Six hundred a month for that.† Nate shrugged. â€Å"So? We lived that way the first couple of years. It’s what you do. We might need cabin six for something. Storage or something.† â€Å"Nope,† said Clay. â€Å"That place was a sweat box and a fire hazard. He’s not living there. He’s our guy.† â€Å"But Clay, he’s only been with us for a day. He’s probably a criminal.† â€Å"He’s our guy,† said Clay, and that was that. Clay had very strong views on loyalty. If Clay had decided that Kona was their guy, he was their guy. â€Å"Okay,† said Nate, feeling as if he had just invited the Medusa in for a sandwich. â€Å"The Old Broad called.† â€Å"How is she?† â€Å"Still nuts.† â€Å"How’re you?† â€Å"Getting there.† How to cite Fluke, or, I Know Why the Winged Whale Sings Chapter 5~6, Essay examples

Organisational Culture in Construction System †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Organisational Culture in Construction System. Answer: Introduction: Organisational culture is something which is extremely important for an organisation to make sure the organisational environment is suitable for operations. Organisational culture is the way an organisation places itself among the employees and the way it does things. In the contemporary business environment the discussion of organisation culture stands to be important as most of the organisations are focused on gaining competitive advantage which would only happen if the organisation is able to make sure that all the different employees of the company are working towards the overall growth and development of the organisation. The needs and wants of people are insatiable and hence it is important to stay under a culture that supports an individual to effectively understand the society. Similarly organisational culture has evolved over the years which have become effective for the operations of an organisation (Carlstrm and Ekman, 2012). As per the classical theory of culture it is defined as the environment under which people learn and develop beliefs and ideas and meaning of their lives and also understands the value of staying in the society which largely helps to improve the overall productivity of the organisation. The organisational culture is different in different organisations and hence it is important for the organisation to understand the suitability of the organisational culture implemented in the organisation. As per the top philosophers and anthropologists different people have different perspective of culture which is why nobody could be said wrong as per their perception of culture. Since the present discussion is not about the societal culture and is highly related to the aspect of business it is important to mention that businesses normally believe in doing things in a specific way which is regarded as culture (Huhtala et al., 2013). For an organisation there could be different cultures in different levels of the organisation with one culture at the helm which helps all the employees to focus on the organisational goals and objectives. It is important for the organisation to understand its own values and principles which helps to set up a strong business motive and also helps to influence the employees and establish a professional culture in the organisation which would help to get the best possible result from the employees (Rameezdeen and Gunarathna, 2012). Organisational culture largely involves the different strictures, norms, values of an organisation that helps the organisation to build up a strong organisation and prepare its employees accordingly. To conclude it could be said that organisational culture is the amalgamation of personal and professional cultures of the entities involved with an organisation that makes a unique environment in the organisation allowing the employees to explore personal areas of development and also enhance their learning abilities by getting exposed to different situations that strengthens their personal and professional integrity and helps to make them a compact professional. The organisational culture is always influenced by the aspects like professionalism of the staffs, their appearance and attire, company values and beliefs and the aims, goals and objectives of the organisation (Stensaker and Vabo, 2013). Activity 3 Investigating countries through Hofstedes Dimension Model All across the world there are number of countries and all of them have different climatic conditions, different economy and external environment as well as different culture which make each and every country unique in their own way. For international expansion many organisations need to understand the foreign market which is one of the indispensable aspects for the organisation. It is not only important for the organisation to understand the external environment of the country but it is also important for the organisation to understand the culture of the nation which is largely important to make change decisions among the organisational operations effectively. Most of the bigger multinationals focus on understanding the overall environment and the culture which would help to manage the business effectively. Understanding the culture of a place is important for an organisation as it will definitely help to make suitable decisions for the business in not only in the domestic market bu t also in the foreign market. There are number of online tools which are now available for an organisation and the organisation needs to choose a suitable tool which would help to get suitable cultural information. Geert Hofstedes Cultural Dimension Model is one of the effective and suitable tools that help to investigate cultures of different countries (Hsu, Woodside and Marshall, 2013). The Geert Hofstedes Dimension Model has six different dimensions that influence the national culture of the country. The six dimensions are: Power Distance Index, Indulgence vs. Restraint, Long term vs. Short Term, Masculinity vs. Femininity, Tolerance of uncertainty and individuality and collectivism. In the present paper Australia and China have been taken to understand the difference in terms of cultural aspects. Power distance is the aspect which shows the distribution of power in the society and its acceptance by the weaker member of the society. In Australia power distance is low which means it has better and equal distribution of power whereas in China distribution of power is unequal and people largely follow hierarchy. Individualism is the interest of the people to integrate themselves in groups and grow together. As seen from figure 2 Australian societies is much more individualist and tend to look after them rather working in groups and focusing on collective development which is just the opposite in China as they believe growing together with teamwork. Masculinity is indicated in a society by its tendency to be dominating, assertive and strength and both the countries show similar result of being masculine in nature and China is tad higher in rating which means it is focused on building society and dominating other societies and cultures (Minkov and Hofstede, 2012). Countries with higher uncertainty avoidance rating are likely to follow conventional rules and regulations to operate and are not trying to experiment with the culture. In this case it could be said that Australia has higher rating and hence it is much more formal and so it prefers to operate conventionally to avoid uncertain situation in the culture which is just the opposite in China (Venaik and Brewer, 2013). Long term orientation is the tendency of the country to think about the future and in this case Australia is not at all thinking about its long term future and rather focuses on short term goals in the society which is just the opposite of China. Indulgence is high in Australia as the country is open to new ideas and the people are highly focused on leading their life to the fullest and explore the bright side of life which is less visible in China (Brewer and Venaik, 2012). Conclusion Organisational Culture is extremely important for an organisation to grow and develop and hence it is important for the organisation to integrate effective culture. Hence it is important for organisations to understand the concept of culture. Culture is broader perspective could be understood through Hofstedes model of cultural dimension which showed that Australia and China have many things different to each other when China is much more collective then Australia is individualistic, Australia is open to indulgence whereas China is focused on restraining its society to new things. References Brewer, P. and Venaik, S., 2012. On the misuse of national culture dimensions.International Marketing Review,29(6), pp.673-683. Carlstrm, E.D. and Ekman, I., 2012. Organisational culture and change: implementing person-centred care.Journal of health organization and management,26(2), pp.175-191. Hsu, S.Y., Woodside, A.G. and Marshall, R., 2013. Critical tests of multiple theories of cultures consequences: Comparing the usefulness of models by Hofstede, Inglehart and Baker, Schwartz, Steenkamp, as well as GDP and distance for explaining overseas tourism behavior.Journal of Travel Research,52(6), pp.679-704. Huhtala, M., Feldt, T., Hyvnen, K. and Mauno, S., 2013. Ethical organisational culture as a context for managers personal work goals.Journal of Business Ethics,114(2), pp.265-282. Minkov, M. and Hofstede, G., 2012. Is national culture a meaningful concept? Cultural values delineate homogeneous national clusters of in-country regions.Cross-Cultural Research,46(2), pp.133-159. Rameezdeen, R. and Gunarathna, N., 2012. Organisational culture in construction: an employee perspective.Construction Economics and Building,3(1), pp.19-30. Stensaker, B. and Vab, A., 2013. Re?inventing shared governance: Implications for organisational culture and institutional leadership.Higher Education Quarterly,67(3), pp.256-274. Venaik, S. and Brewer, P., 2013. Critical issues in the Hofstede and GLOBE national culture models.International Marketing Review,30(5), pp.469-482.

Electronic Advertising

Introduction In electronic advertisement, business enterprises take hold of the opportunities presented to them through the Internet and the World Wide Web to promote their respective businesses. Electronic advertisement involves the use of these and suchlike platforms to deliver marketing or promotional messages to potential customers.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Electronic Advertising specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Electronic advertisement is performed through search engines, social networking sites, blogs, E-mail and online networks devoted to its promotion. One major benefit presented by electronic advertisement that surpasses traditional advertising methods is the increased ability to customize adverts, thus making investments in this kind of business more efficient. Another benefit of electronic advertisement over traditional advertising methods is that it has the ability to reach a wider audience com prising people of different ages, ethnic and racial backgrounds. the next advantage of electronic advertisement is that consumers wield more control on an item and, therefore, can choose whether to check the advert or not. The Internet is the main platform through which electronic marketing is carried out. Its expansion to accommodate more capabilities is an incentive that attracts business enterprises to electronic marketing. Literature review Organizations need information systems so that they can manage efficiently and provide security to the information at the procession. In addition, information systems are an effective means to improve integration and work processes in them. An information system basically creates a log of another system that is integrated into the organization. The system which log is created by an organization’s information system is known as a target system. Owing to the dynamicity and volatility of the electronic marketing environment in which an or ganization or business enterprise finds itself in, there is a need to mange its marketing information more efficiently and log its marketing systems to ensure optimal performance. Thus, there is the need for information systems based on the information technology devoted to the electronic marketing. Such information systems are known as Information Technology-based Marketing Information Systems (MkISs).Advertising Looking for essay on advertising? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More MkISs can be defined as a collection of procedures and methods formulated for regular planning analysis and presentation of information that is essential in marketing decision-making (Talvinen, 1994, 8). Managing marketing information through MkISs in an organization facilitates effective online or electronic marketing as it ensures that marketing decision-makers are presented with timely and accurate marketing information, thus enabling them to improv e the design, plan and implementation of their electronic marketing strategies (Talvinen, 1994, 8). MkISs collect, share marketing information and use it to promote the corporate and brand image of an organization. MkISs in organizations improve communication of marketing information between personnel in the sales (or promotion, or product management) and accounting (or corporate planning, or advertising) departments. An examination of MkISs reveals that a number of models underlie their design and development (Talvinen, 1994, 10). These models present MkISs along two aspects, namely, typical subsystems and general dimensions. There are six classes of these models, thus the classification is done on the basis of the type of primary use of the MkISs. The first class of these models is data gathering where MkISs that fall in this category are used primarily for gathering marketing data and all the necessary information. The second class of MkISs’ models is data analysis which c omprises of MkISs used first for analyzing the collected statistics that is critical in marketing decision-making. The third class of MkISs’ models is marketing planning which captures all the MkISs that facilitate effective design of marketing plans. The fourth class of MkISs’ models is marketing decision making, which captures MkISs that enable informed and positive decision-making with respect to the marketing strategies. The fifth class of MkISs’ models is the implementation of marketing activities, which capture MkISs that are used in the development and promotion of successful electronic marketing activities. The sixth class of MkISs’ models is control, which is divided further into two subclasses, namely, external and internal ones. The external control subclass of MkISs captures the MkISs that are used in controlling an organization’s external marketing environment and activities. The internal control subclass of MkISs deals with the MkISs that are used in controlling an organization’s internal marketing environment and activities.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Electronic Advertising specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More MkISs can be divided into two groups, and this is dependent on two things. The first one is the position of the users of the MkISs in the organization, and the second is the use of a certain type of the MkISs. The first group of MkISs is used by managers, and the second one is that for use in sales and marketing activities. Typically, in an organization, there is a variation in class of MkISs used by managers and marketing analysts and so on. Similarly, there is a variation in class between the MkISs implemented in operational sales activities and marketing. The users of MkISs, marketing information management and decision-making systems include marketing managers, senior executives, marketing analysts, marketing experts and S BUs (Strategic Business Units) (Talvinen, 1994, 10). So as to come up with sound electronic marketing decisions, marketing managers heavily rely on marketing analysts and experts because the latter have skills to transform raw marketing information collected by data gathering MkISs into knowledge needed by the marketing managers. In today’s world, MkISs are not only designed and developed to be used strictly in the context of management but in other areas as well. MkISs are integrated into operational process-oriented systems for sales and marketing that are used in operational daily marketing activities. These daily marketing operational activities include telemarketing, database marketing (or direct mailing) and operational sales management. The users of such kind of MkISs are personnel in an organization’s middle management, operative sales and marketing. A very important factor to consider when integrating MkISs is the relationship between them and other informatio n systems (Talvinen, 1994, 10). These other information systems include those used in other organizational processes, such as finance, human resource, production, etc. The movement of data or data flow between the MkISs and the other information systems should be understood and defined well. Another very important aspect to consider in the integration of MkISs is data gathering. The MkISs have to collect information from the marketing environment of an organization and, mainly, from consumers and competitors. MkISs generally gather marketing statistics of a qualitative nature whereas other information systems working with the MkISs collect quantitative data (Talvinen, 1994, 10). An example of data gathered by MkISs is consumer buying behaviour. MkISs can be tuned to generate management reports, such as sales forecasts.Advertising Looking for essay on advertising? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To complement the statistics and information gathered by MkISs, there is an outstanding need for organizations to collect data on the organization’s external marketing environment. When such data is gathered, it can be again stored in the MkISs. Such statistics is accumulated through queries invoked against commercial databases and data banks. Another aspect to consider in the integration of MkISs is how to transform or convert the data gathered into usable information and knowledge (Talvinen, 1994, 10). MkISs are a vital tool in the implementation of the sales and marketing strategies as they provide an analysis approach and analysis tools for converting the qualitative data they have gathered into information and knowledge. An area in which the knowledge generated from an MkISs is used is in sales and marketing activities, e.g. telemarketing and database advertising. Another area which benefits form the knowledge generated from MkISs is management which has to control marke ts, marketing strategies and activities, analyze target markets and make marketing decisions. Operational MkISs are vital sources of internal information for management MkISs’, which are the main systems that generate information from the data collected (Talvinen, 1994, 10). Another area in which the knowledge generated from an MkISs is useful is in research and development where new marketing strategies are developed, and/or older ones are improved. Information generated from MkISs is also useful in market forecasting as well as planning. Another very important aspect to consider when integrating MkISs into an organization is analysis and decision-making (Talvinen, 1994, 10). MkISs are tools for analysing the data they gather. Moreover, these systems are, therefore, essential in successful and effective decision making. Marketing analysts and experts should familiarize themselves with the analysis approach and analysis tools presented by the MkISs. Senior executives are the main decision-makers and should be, therefore, conversant with how the MkISs present their findings. In the organization, marketing decision making involves close collaboration between the current analysts (experts) and the senior executives with the former ones transforming the raw data gathered by the MkISs into the information and knowledge that can be readily used by the latter Analysis One of the underlying strengths of all the MkISs is information technology (IT) boom. The IT boom is a worldwide phenomenon encouraging the automation, storage and digitization of the knoweledge. This inherently encourages the development and use of MkISs. Another underlying advantage of MkISs is their need for digital storage of information. Traditionally, marketing information would be kept and stored in paper form, which would make it more risky and arduous to manage high volumes of information. With MkISs, information is stored in electronic form in computers reducing the chances of it being lost and, in addition, it makes its management easy. Another basic benefit of MkISs is their need for an integrated information management for marketing data. The marketing environment in which organizations find themselves in is very dynamic and volatile. Collection and management of marketing data in such an environment can be difficult, thus MkISs make it possible for the statistics to be collected and kept until the time when an organization is ready to transfer it or use it in one or another way. The next main strength of MkISs is that they need to have a ready access to marketing data. The electronic (digital) storage of marketing data by MkISs allows its users to have a ready access to the marketing data from any geographical location as long as the MkISs are online, It means that they are running on the World Wide Web or through the Internet. Another underlying strength of MkISs is its compatibility or support for advanced information technology infrastructure. MkISs can be implemented or integrated using advanced information technology infrastructure. This factor allows to have a huge storage of data and fast processing. This ensures that knowledge is generated from the MkISs in real-time and quickly integrated into marketing decision making. On the contrary, one of the main weaknesses of MkISs is the need for advanced knowledge to operate them. Typically, MkISs’ infrastructure consists of computer hardware such as mainframes, which are less user-friendly to operate and thus may require additional training which can be costly. Another disadvantage of MkISs is low security. Keeping information online as its risk as the information is vulnerable to online attacks from hackers who can maliciously use it for their own gain. An organization is to ensure that the information in the MkISs is secure, otherwise, lack of information security can be detrimental to the organization. Low security is a weakness as well as a threat of MkISs. Findings From the analysis above, low security as been identified is both the weakness and the threat to MkISs. One way to enhance the security of MkISs can be implemented through cryptography where information is hidden from unauthorized individuals due to the use of encryption and decryption algorithms (Coulouris et al, 2005, 275). In the face of the online attacks, cryptography ensures knowledge security by making sure that information being exchanged between the MkISs and the other systems is encrypted and decrypted by authorized individuals (Coulouris et al, 2005, 276). Another way to maintain the security of MkISs is through firewalls. Firewalls monitor as well as regulate the communication and interaction between a computer and an online resource and, thus, ensure that no malicious attacks can occur. In addition to these security enhancing measures, it is also important that MkISs undergo continuous quality improvement (CQI). Continuous quality improvement ensures that MkISs do not become obs olete in the face of new challenges, especially those relating to security. In continuous quality improvement, the potential failures of MkISs are determined beforehand, and action plans (proactive incident response plans) are formulated to eliminate or deal with them. One technique of doing CQI is FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis) (Black, 2005, 25). FMEA reveals the strengths, weakness and potential failures of a system. The main function of FMEA is that it predicts the failures related to the design of a system and, therefore, ensures that the system will be based on the set standards and work according to all the necessary requirements. Conclusion As technology advances, the capabilities of the Internet and the World Wide Web are extended in tandem. This results in increased online traffic which marketers want to tap into. electronic advertising. This is, therefore, a positive strategic investment for organizations and business enterprises with long term growth and expansio n objectives and endeavors. To perform effective electronic advertising, it is imperative that such organizations are able to manage their marketing information effectively owing to the dynamicity and volatility of the environment they are to operate in. Thus, it is important that they acquire and implement MkISs, which are information systems dedicated to improving decision-making in the area of electronic marketing. MkISs, however, have one major shortcoming which is that they cannot guarantee the security of information stored in them. This shortcoming necessitates the need for an organization to invest heavily and regularly in information security. Reference List Black, R. (2002). Managing the testing process: practical tools and techniques  for managing hardware and software testing. Wiley Publishing, Inc.: Canada Coulouris, G. Dollimore, J. And Kindberg, T. ( 2005). Distributed systems concepts and design. (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited: England. Talvinen, J.M. (1994). Information systems in marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 29(1), 8 -10 This essay on Electronic Advertising was written and submitted by user Kimberly Kent to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Feminism in Pride and Prejudice Essays

Feminism in Pride and Prejudice Essays Feminism in Pride and Prejudice Essay Feminism in Pride and Prejudice Essay Essay Topic: Pride and Prejudice Pride and PrejudiceSociety is divided into classes, which leads some people to believe that they are more classy when they merely are just arrogant. Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen is a novel about the social classes, their manners, and what becomes of the social classes when they are mixed.Elizabeth Bennet is the second daughter of five. She is intelligent, witty, lovely, clever, and honest. She is the protagonist of the novel. Not belonging to the upper class, Elizabeth is judgmental of people in the higher classes. Her male counterpart is Fitzwilliam Darcy. He is the wealthy high class friend of Bingley, who feels the lower class people of Meryton are his inferiors. Darcy is rude to those not of his social standing. In the beginning the two characters show opposing personalities. She is kind and lovely and he is conceited and proud.Despite their class different and personalities, Elizabeth and Darcys similarities begins with their introduction. Both are judgmental of each other due to their social classes.Elizabeth views Darcy as an uppity snobbish man who feels he has social superiority, and he looks down on her because they are not of equal social standings. Elizabeths dislike of Darcy begins when he refuses to dance with her and anyone else who is not rich and well bred. She is lead to believe that he is too proud to be liked. He comments about her looks, she is tolerable; but not handsome enough to tempt me, (7) reinforcing his arrogance and ego. His effort to maintain his social standing and image leads to a mutual dislike. Her contempt is only strengthened when she is informed that he is the one who persuaded Bingley to move away from Jane. The irony in the story is that Darcy becomes attracted to Elizabeth because of her sharp tongue and intelligence. He had never been as bewitched by any women as he was by her. (38)Their arguments, such as over the ideal women, provided Darcy access to a deeper aspect of her

Small business enterprise Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Small business enterprise - Assignment Example In addition, most small business administration do set the capacity of the company depending on the structures of the enterprise. It includes the number of the employees and the level of revenue generated by the industry (Broom and Longenecker, 2011). However, the company can be small, medium or large business depending on the description that that the ministry in charge in any given country will provide. For example, in the United States, the small business plan is a firm whose gross average for the previous three years is not more than the current total average. In addition, the rating of the company also bases on the value of assets, annual sales as well as the net profit. The medium sized business enterprise includes; Tata Motors and the Texas Accountants firm. The two companies have varying profiles that guide the operations of the companies. In addition, the company profile always acts as a guide to the customers of that particular enterprise (Sen, 2008). Company profile is also a requirement that that the business plans ought to have in order to acquire permission to run the company. It is a small automobile company in India that has consolidated revenues of $ 2,000,000 in 2012-2013. The company is making efforts to increase its yearly income and the number of employees. The Tata motor group has 20,000 employees who are operating under a vision and the mission of the company (Keith and Gubellini, 2014). Tata Motors was put up in 1970; the company management has been trying to increase its annual revenue as well the number of employs it employs. In addition, the company will be in a position to boost its current status to medium business enterprise. The company is also opening various branches to increase its sales volume (Andersson, Miles and Ward, 1996). In addition, the company is also making efforts over different brands in the market in

Limited Collection Brand in Marks & Spencer Essay

Limited Collection Brand in Marks & Spencer - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that Marks and Spencer Group (M&S) is a retailer of clothing, foods and Homeware. It operates through owned stores and franchise stores. The company has two reportable geographic segments: UK and international. M&S operates through a chain of 622 stores across UK and 278 international outlets throughout 34 countries worldwide The company's operations can be categorized under two divisions: food and general merchandise including clothing and home ware. The food division focuses on fresh, natural, healthy food; special celebration products; authentic ready meals and exceptional everyday food such as Oakham' chicken and Aberdeen Angus steaks. It chain of 205 franchised Simply Food' stores operates in railway stations, Heathrow Airport and motor service areas. These stores offers its customers an opportunity to shops between visits to the company's main stores. The clothing division product portfolio includes women's wear, men's wear, lingerie children's wear and footwear. Hong Kong, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Turkey offices provides the raw materials to the division. This division offers some prominent brands which includes: Autograph, Limited Collection, Cellozione, Blue Harbour, Girls Boutique, Per Una and Ceriso. The home division product and services caters homeware and home accessories; kitchen and tableware; lighting; and furniture products. The division also offers catalogue and online services.

Republican government in US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Republican government in US - Essay Example The paper demonstrates one of the significant elements of the constitution that represent the republican principle of limited government. It is where the constitution grants power to citizens, office holders and government institutions and limit all of them the exercise of power. McPherson explains that under the constitution, the sovereignty is normally divided among the state government, national government and the people, which prevent power concentration which endangers citizen’s liberty. Additionally, having endured more that two centuries, the constitution also has an element of four innovations in terms of practice and theory of the republican government. To start with the American constitution was written, and the innovation employed to create the state constitutions as well as the confederation articles. According to Curtsi, the written constitutions were significant from a vague body of law, British model and precedent, in which some were written or not. The constitu tion is also superior and separate to the government that they sought to restrain. Citizens look up to the parliament to protect their liberties from abuse of power by the state and other powerful individuals. Some of the three institutions in the new government that embodies the farmer’s commitment to the principle of representation are the house of representative, the presidency, and the senate. However, the system of representation that the framers of the constitution established the house of representative was republicanism... the sovereignty is normally divided among the state government, national government and the people, which prevent power concentration which endangers citizen’s liberty (452). Additionally, having endured more that two centuries, the constitution also has an element of four innovations in terms of practice and theory of the republican government. To start with the American constitution was written, and the innovation employed to create the state constitutions as well as the confederation articles. According to Curtsi, the written constitutions were significant from a vague body of law, British model and precedent, in which some were written or not (44-67). The constitution is also superior and separate to the government that they sought to restrain. Citizens look up to the parliament to protect their liberties from abuse of power by the state and other powerful individuals. Article V of the constitution divides the amendment power between the state governments and the national, as well as the conventions of popular citizens, where the popular conventions have been employed once since the law was amended. Some of the three institutions in the new government that embodies the farmer’s commitment to the principle of representation are the house of representative, the presidency, and the senate. However, the system of representation that the framers of the constitution established the house of representative was republicanism. Section 4, Article 4, of the constitution states that, every state in the union is guaranteed a republican form of government, but nothing has been said to add any clarification or specificity. The three institutions that embody the framers commitment were represented through direct population. This is because, on the matter of representative’s

The Potential Unreliability Of Eyewitness Criminology Essay

The Potential Unreliability Of Eyewitness Criminology Essay The potential unreliability of eyewitness testimony poses one of the most serious problems in the administration of criminal justice. Eyewitness testimony is very important for legal decisions. Eyewitnesses are central to most court cases (Kebbell Milne, 1999) and eyewitnesses accounts are the most common and significant testimonies that can potentially serve as the primary forms of evidence against a defendant. Moreover research shows that jurors exaggeratedly believe the testimony of eyewitnesses and this, can lead to possible miscarriages of justice (Cutler et al. 1990). The aim of this essay is to investigate, based on the literature, the reasons that may influence the memory process of eyewitnesses and also what can be done in order to ensure that eyewitnesses testimony worth the value. Eyewitness testimony is a legal term and it refers to an account given by a bystander in the courtroom, who describes what happened during a specific incident under investigation. This is the principal way in which the guilt of the accused is established through verbal witness evidence in court. It is considered to be a reliable accepted form that provides evidence and jurors tend to pay close attention to it. Recently forensics and psychologists declare that memories and individual perceptions are unreliable, can being easily manipulated and biased . As a result, inaccurate eyewitnesses identifications can have serious consequences leading to wrong convictions of innocent people (Wells et al., 1998). When scientific psychology was in its first steps, articles about mistaken eyewitness identifications started to appear in the field (Munsterberg, 1908). However, eyewitness evidence has made people to think if eyewitnesses testimonies are reliable or not. It would be said though that all people have the knowledge that they do not remember everything, and therefore they know that memory can be weak. On the other hand it is difficult to deny the importance of eyewitnesses testimony. Research has shown that people probably feel better about convicting an alleged criminal when an eyewitness claims I saw him do it than when there is no such claim. The hypothesis that inaccurate eyewitness identifications can lead to the conviction of innocent people is also accepted by Canadian legal professionals (Brooks, 1983). DNA testing in the United States has shown that mistaken eyewitness identifications are the reason for more false convictions than all other causes combined (Connors et al. 1996 ). Moreover, this statement about eyewitness misidentifications that is one of the most common causes of wrongful convictions ( Rattner, Sagarin, 1986). Borchard reported that eyewitness error occurred in 45% of 65 cases of wrongful convictions. Huff (1986) found eyewitness errors in nearly 60% of 500 wrongful convictions and Ruttner (1986) concluded that eyewitness error occurred in 52% of 205 wrongful convictions. All these wrongful convictions studies were conducted before the invention of DNA testing. In 1996 a study which analysed of the application of DNA technology to forensic issues in the United States, has revealed some significant facts (Connors, et al., 1996). More specifically 28 men who were found guilty for various criminal acts were exonerated through the analysis of DNA typing. Eyewitness identification was the single most common factor accounting for these erroneous convictions. Furthermore, Wells, et al., (1998) added some more cases to the list of DNA-related wi th false identifications. These cases revealed that one to up to five eyewitnesses made false identifications of innocent suspects. Nevertheless, the eyewitness evidence was presented by well-meaning and confident citizens it was highly persuasive but, at the same time it was at least partially responsible for the majority of wrongful convictions. More recently, The Innocence Project reported some significant facts. The Innocence Project is a national litigation and public policy organisation dedicated to exonerating wrongfully convicted individuals through DNA testing and reforming the criminal justice system to prevent future injustice. The findings of this project show that about 66% of 138 cases in which DNA could exonerate the accused, wrongfully eyewitness identification was involved (Wells, 2004). As eyewitness concerns the memory process it is undeniable that some memory trace exists and this could have important consequences for the course of justice (Wells, 1993). Few people would doubt that human memory is fallible. According to Haber (2000), people tend to believe that memories are like video recorders that faithfully record the things that people do and replay them back perfectly later. The fact is that sensory and perceptual experiences of an incident are not recorded in memory in a similar way to a videotape recorder (Yarmey, 1980). Human memory is constructed and reconstructed from stored bits and pieces of acquired information of what actually happened and what a person intuits, discovers from others, or infers must have happened'(Graham, 2008). Following the reconstructive view, memory can be divided into three stages: (1) acquisition or encoding of information; (2) retention or storage of information over time; and (3) retrieval of stored information through recal l and recognition. A lot of problems may occur in each of these three stages. Loftus (1979, 1996) has focused a lot in these three stages of memory in order to understand the problems that may occur and lead to false convictions. Thus in the first stage which is encoding, the information first goes into the memories. More specifically, if not enough attention is paid to what is going on the encoding stage, then events may not be encoded properly. For example the length of time an eyewitness is able to see the perpetrator, will affect the accuracy of his/her memory. That is, the longer an eyewitness can see the perpetrator, the more will be able to encode and retrieve later on the identification task. Thus, exposure time is a very important variable that can affects the accuracy of eyewitness identification ( Laugherty et al., 1971). Furthermore other problems that may influence the encoding stage are the event salience and the prior expectations of the eyewitness. Usually eyewitnesses pay more attention to some details than others and also recall expectation n ot necessarily the truth. As a result they give wrong identifications (Loftus, 1974). During the second stage which is storage, people keep the information in their memories to recall later. In this stage the factors that may influence the eyewitnesses testimony are the length of time or the exposure to new information. For example witnesses might read a new report about the incident, which can affect their original memory, or if the information is stored for a long time the natural processes of forgetting could further degrade the memory. For this reason, some witnesses are more susceptible than other to false memories. However, people appear more susceptible to post-event information if it occurs later in the interval before formal retrieval (Loftus, 2005). Moreover research suggests that witnesses from each end of the age spectrum may be less reliable on average than those in between. For example, elderly witnesses and young children were found to be poorer at identifying strange rs accurately than other age groups (Ceci Bruck, 1993). Moreover, according to Loftus (1974) another reason that may lead to false memories is the stress that might experiment different eyewitnesses. High levels of stress have been suggested to have a negative effect on a witnesss ability to encode and retrieve information (Kassin et al., 2001). Finally the retrieval stage which is when the information is released in peoples memories, perhaps as a response to questioning, it can create further changes. For example the way questions are asked can distort the original memory or the stressful circumstance may prevent accurate recall. Psychologists distinguish two types of retrieval, recall and recognition. Recognition is where, for example, a eyewitness may take part in a line-up and asked if they have seen it before. The recall equivalent of these tasks would be to ask the eyewitness to describe the suspects appearance or what they were wearing. Recall is usually considered to be mor e difficult because it involves more stages of processing, not only verification but also retrieval (Kebbell Wagstaff, 1999). Other factors that can lead to wrongful evidence are the confidence that eyewitnesses may have the different type of questioning and problems with line-ups. First of all confidence should always be taken into account when assessing the risk of misidentification. Research has shown that lawyers in general accept that confident witnesses are accurate (Leippe, Manion Romanczyk, 1992; Wells et al., 2000). It is suggested that people tend to be more confident when they are forced to choose answers which can cause difficulties in the criminal proceeding (Bornstein Zickafoose, 1999). Moreover badly worded questions, complex sentences and difficult vocabulary are all potentially problematic for witnesses (Kebell Johnson, 2000). Finally according to Busey and Loftus (2007) there are some problems with line-ups. These problems might be inadequate matched fillers, which means that the foils do not match the descriptions of the offender provided by eyewitnesses, bias and unconscious transfere nce which happens when the witness has seen the suspect before but not realise this. Eyewitness testimony is a topic that has a lot of limitations and need for further research is essential. The majority of studies designed to assess the validity of eyewitness have been conducted in laboratory and have used videotapes or live simulations of crime events. Only a minority of these researches have been field studies involving genuine victims and eyewitnesses of real crimes (Brigham et al., 1982; Krafka Penrod, 1985; Pigott, Brigham, Bothwell, 1990; Penrod Cutler, 1997). Of course, eyewitness identifications are made under all sorts of the adequate conditions, but these studies were based on conditions that made witnesses feel more comfortable. For example in several studies there was no psychological pressure for identifying the perpetrator, because in a laboratory study there is not any real risk of the defendant to be sentenced to forensic settings. Furthermore another factor that makes these studies inaccurate consists of the fact that witnesses were asked to iden tify photos rather than real people and there was no arousal for a lot of studies at the time of the encoding. Finally another element to take into consideration is the confidence of the witnesses. In some cases it has been shown to have a significant effect while other studies have shown that it does not. A factor that may increase the credibility of the eyewitness testimony is the expert testimony about eyewitness identification. Such expert testimony has already been allowed in numerous countries around the world (Fishman Loftus, 1978). Expert testimony is designed to provide scientific information. According to Loftus (1978), an expert psychologist can describe to the jurors the studies that have been conducted and the results from the experiments on peoples ability. Furthermore expert testimony about eyewitness behaviour takes part when a professional psychologist is admitted by the judge as an expert authority on eyewitness testimony who is presented in the court and informs the jurors about scientific studies related in memory and the variables that are known to influence memory and memory report (Vidmar Schuller, 1989). Research has shown that expert testimony is the only legal safeguard about the factors that affect the reliability of eyewitnesses accounts to perceive and re call complex events (Cutler Penrod, 1995). Thus the jurors can have enough information on which to evaluate the identification evidence correctly. However expert testimony is not always useful (Cutler Penrod, 1995), expensive time -consuming and there are limited number of experts (Wells, 1993). To summarise, eyewitness testimony is very important in the determination of various legal decisions and also eyewitness accounts are essential because they serve strong evidence against a defendant. However researches have shown that inaccurate eyewitness identifications can have serious consequences leading to wrong convictions of innocent people. The reasons which provoke these erroneous convictions may be problems in the three stages of memory or some types of physical features such as the age and the race of the witness, the behaviour of other witnesses, the presence or absence of expert testimony and the confidence of eyewitnesses. Moreover researches have revealed numerous limitations. The fact that research is mostly based on laboratories studies can be problematic when it comes to apply to real-life situations with precision. In addition a not well organised structure of the line-ups and the inappropriate questioning techniques can contribute to witnesses making mistakes. Ne vertheless, eyewitness testimony continues and will continue to have value because it is considered to be one of the most important factors of evidence in the court which provides vivid and virtual evidence of an incident. On the other hand witnesses are not automatically unreliable. There is much that can be done to promote good evidence both by the police and the courts. It is the forensic psychologists role to investigate further issues which lead to accurate as well as inaccurate accounts and to assist the criminal justice system in interpreting research findings for the benefit of all parties. New studies may help increase the value of the eyewitness testimony by enhancing judges and jurors knowledge of this type of testimony and this can reduce wrongful convictions. Judges and jurors will be more aware of the dangers of erroneous eyewitness testimony and more willing to permit legal safeguards, including expert testimony which informs them about the limitations that they have to be aware of and not to discount a testimony entirely in these limitations. Moreover increasing judges and jurors knowledge of eyewitness testimony is also essential because expert testimony is not a panacea for erroneous identifications. Finally, a dialogue between judges and researchers who specialise in eyewitness studies would be useful in increasing the value of the testimony. Reducing wrongful convictions is vital because the continual discovery of false convictions undermines the reliability of the legal system.

The Role of Women in The Epic of Gilgamesh Essay -- Foster, Literary An

The story starts off with Gilgamesh, the King of Uruk, who is one third man and two thirds god. This story is about a man's quest for immortality in addition to the importance of boundaries between the realms of animal, man and gods. Women symbolize the importance of locative boundaries in the text. These boundaries are set by the harlot Shamhat, Ishtar, Siduri, the tavern keeper, Ninsun and Utanapishtim's wife. By giving women this role of wisdom and boundary enforcement, The Epic of Gilgamesh reflects how Mesopotamian society actually valued women. The harlot, Shamhat, serves to establish the boundary between animals and humans. Enkidu, a creature on the border between animal and man is selected by the gods to balance out Gilgamesh's power. Gilgamesh summons Shamhat to civilize Enkidu after a hunter complains to him about not being able to hunt properly. The harlot, "made herself naked and welcomed his eagerness; as he lay on her murmuring love she taught him the woman's art" (64). Not only did the harlot have sex with Enkidu she also gave him clothing, good food and wine causing Enkidu to become a man" (67). This shows not only the locative emphasis of a man's role in society but also a woman's role in securing that place. By civilizing Enkidu, the harlot manages to keep Gilgamesh in his place by establishing an equal for him. Similarly, both Ishtar and Siduri maintain the boundaries between humans and the divine realm by trying to keep Gilgamesh in the realm of man. Gilgamesh insults Ishtar with rejection and she then sends down the Bull of Heaven as revenge (85-88). After Enkidu and Gilgamesh kill the Bull of Heaven Enkidu insulted Ishtar further when he, "tore out the Bull's right thigh and tossed it in her face" (88). ... ... Gilgamesh sleeps show that he is powerless over sleep. Utanapishtim's wife represents Gilgamesh's inability to be immortal and the necessity of boundaries between the realms. Therefore, both Utanapishtim's wife and Ninsun symbolize wisdom and the boundary between man and gods. Thus, the role of women in this story serves to keep animals, men and gods in their respective boundaries. The harlot represents civilization by taking Enkidu from wild man to civilian and putting him solely in the human realm. Ishtar keeps Gilgamesh in check by taking Enkidu's life as a result of their disrespect while Siduri shows a woman's wisdom by giving Gilgamesh his lot in life. Meanwhile, Ninsun gives Enkidu to Gilgamesh as an equalizer as well as her prophetic knowledge. Lastly, Utanapishtim's wife shows that Gilgamesh can never be immortal and therefore must stay in his own world.